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<!DOCTYPE html>

<head>

<title>Introduction — مستندات Python3.14.6</title><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">

title="جستجو در مستندات Python3.14.6"

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<h3><a href="../contents.html">فهرست عناوین</a></h3>

<ul>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Introduction</a><ul>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#language-version-compatibility">Language version compatibility</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#coding-standards">Coding standards</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#include-files">Include Files</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#useful-macros">Useful macros</a><ul>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#docstring-macros">Docstring macros</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#general-utility-macros">General utility macros</a><ul>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#numeric-utilities">Numeric utilities</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#assertion-utilities">Assertion utilities</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#type-size-utilities">Type size utilities</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#macro-definition-utilities">Macro definition utilities</a></li>

</ul>

</li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#declaration-utilities">Declaration utilities</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#outdated-macros">Outdated macros</a></li>

</ul>

</li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#objects-types-and-reference-counts">Objects, Types and Reference Counts</a><ul>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference-counts">Reference Counts</a><ul>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#reference-count-details">Reference Count Details</a></li>

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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types">Types</a></li>

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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#embedding-python">Embedding Python</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#debugging-builds">Debugging Builds</a></li>

<li><a class="reference internal" href="#recommended-third-party-tools">Recommended third party tools</a></li>

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</div>

<div>

<h4>موضوع قبلی</h4>

<a href="index.html"

title="فصل قبلی">Python/C API reference manual</a>

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<h4>موضوع بعدی</h4>

<a href="stable.html"

title="فصل بعدی">C API Stability</a>

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<h3>ناوبری</h3>

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<a href="../genindex.html" title="فهرست کلی"

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<a href="../py-modindex.html" title="نمایه ی ماژول های پایتون"

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accesskey="N">بعدی</a> |</li>

<a href="index.html" title="Python/C API reference manual"

accesskey="P">قبلی</a> |</li>

<li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li>

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<a href="../index.html">3.14.6 Documentation</a> »

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<h1>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>

The Application Programmer's Interface to Python gives C and C++ programmers

access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels. The API is equally

usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally referred to as the Python/C

API. There are two fundamentally different reasons for using the Python/C API.

The first reason is to write extension modules for specific purposes; these

are C modules that extend the Python interpreter. This is probably the most

common use. The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger

application; this technique is generally referred to as embedding Python

in an application.

Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process, where a

"cookbook" approach works well. There are several tools that automate the

process to some extent. While people have embedded Python in other

applications since its early existence, the process of embedding Python is

less straightforward than writing an extension.

Many API functions are useful independent of whether you're embedding or

extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python will need to

provide a custom extension as well, so it's probably a good idea to become

familiar with writing an extension before attempting to embed Python in a real

application.

<h2>Language version compatibility<a class="headerlink" href="#language-version-compatibility" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>

Python's C API is compatible with C11 and C++11 versions of C and C++.

This is a lower limit: the C API does not require features from later

C/C++ versions.

You do not need to enable your compiler's "c11 mode".

</section>

<h2>Coding standards<a class="headerlink" href="#coding-standards" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>

If you're writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you must follow the

guidelines and standards defined in <a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/">PEP 7</a>. These guidelines apply

regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to. Following these

conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension modules,

unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python.

</section>

<h2>Include Files<a class="headerlink" href="#include-files" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>

All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API are

included in your code by the following line:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN

#include <Python.h>

</pre></div>

</div>

This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><stdio.h></code>,

(if available).

توجه

Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard

headers on some systems, you must include <code class="file docutils literal notranslate">Python.h</code> before any standard

headers are included.

It is recommended to always define <code class="docutils literal notranslate">PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</code> before including

<code class="docutils literal notranslate">Python.h</code>. See <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#arg-parsing">Parsing arguments and building values</a> for a description of this macro.

</div>

All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the included

standard headers) have one of the prefixes <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Py</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">_Py</code>. Names beginning

with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">_Py</code> are for internal use by the Python implementation and should not be

used by extension writers. Structure member names do not have a reserved prefix.

توجه

User code should never define names that begin with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Py</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">_Py</code>. This

confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the portability of the user code to

future Python versions, which may define additional names beginning with one

of these prefixes.

</div>

The header files are typically installed with Python. On Unix, these are

located in the directories <code class="file docutils literal notranslate">prefix/include/pythonversion/</code> and

<code class="file docutils literal notranslate">exec_prefix/include/pythonversion/</code>, where <a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#cmdoption-prefix"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">prefix</code></a> and

<a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#cmdoption-exec-prefix"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">exec_prefix</code></a> are defined by the corresponding parameters to Python's

configure script and version is

<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]</code>. On Windows, the headers are installed

in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate">prefix/include</code>, where <code class="docutils literal notranslate">prefix</code> is the installation

directory specified to the installer.

To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your compiler's

search path for includes. Do not place the parent directories on the search

path and then use <code class="docutils literal notranslate">#include <pythonX.Y/Python.h></code>; this will break on

multi-platform builds since the platform independent headers under

<a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#cmdoption-prefix"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">prefix</code></a> include the platform specific headers from

<a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#cmdoption-exec-prefix"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">exec_prefix</code></a>.

C++ users should note that although the API is defined entirely using C, the

header files properly declare the entry points to be <code class="docutils literal notranslate">extern "C"</code>. As a result,

there is no need to do anything special to use the API from C++.

</section>

<h2>Useful macros<a class="headerlink" href="#useful-macros" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>

Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files. Many are

defined closer to where they are useful (for example, <a class="reference internal" href="none.html#c.Py_RETURN_NONE" title="Py_RETURN_NONE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">Py_RETURN_NONE</code></a>,

<a class="reference internal" href="extension-modules.html#c.PyMODINIT_FUNC" title="PyMODINIT_FUNC"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">PyMODINIT_FUNC</code></a>).

Others of a more general utility are defined here. This is not necessarily a

complete listing.

Py_CAN_START_THREADS<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CAN_START_THREADS" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>If this macro is defined, then the current system is able to start threads.

Currently, all systems supported by CPython (per <a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/">PEP 11</a>), with the

exception of some WebAssembly platforms, support starting threads.

Added in version 3.13.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_GETENV(s)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GETENV" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Like <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">getenv(s)</code>, but returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">NULL</code> if <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-E"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">-E</code></a> was passed

on the command line (see <a class="reference internal" href="init_config.html#c.PyConfig.use_environment" title="PyConfig.use_environment"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate">PyConfig.use_environment</code></a>).

</dd></dl>

<h3>Docstring macros<a class="headerlink" href="#docstring-macros" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>

PyDoc_STRVAR(name, str)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDoc_STRVAR" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Creates a variable with name name that can be used in docstrings.

If Python is built without docstrings (<a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#cmdoption-without-doc-strings"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">--without-doc-strings</code></a>),

the value will be an empty string.

Example:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element.");

static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = {

// ...

{"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc},

// ...

}

</pre></div>

</div>

Expands to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">PyDoc_VAR(name) = PyDoc_STR(str)</code>.

</dd></dl>

PyDoc_STR(str)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDoc_STR" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Expands to the given input string, or an empty string

if docstrings are disabled (<a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#cmdoption-without-doc-strings"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate">--without-doc-strings</code></a>).

Example:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = {

{"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS,

PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")},

{NULL, NULL}

};

</pre></div>

</div>

</dd></dl>

PyDoc_VAR(name)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyDoc_VAR" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Declares a static character array variable with the given name.

Expands to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">static const char name[]</code>

For example:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>PyDoc_VAR(python_doc) = PyDoc_STR(

"A genus of constricting snakes in the Pythonidae family native "

"to the tropics and subtropics of the Eastern Hemisphere.");

</pre></div>

</div>

</dd></dl>

</section>

<h3>General utility macros<a class="headerlink" href="#general-utility-macros" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>

The following macros are for common tasks not specific to Python.

Py_UNUSED(arg)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNUSED" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence compiler

warnings. Example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">int func(int a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) { return a; }</code>.

Added in version 3.4.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_GCC_ATTRIBUTE(name)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_GCC_ATTRIBUTE" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Use a GCC attribute name, hiding it from compilers that don't support GCC

attributes (such as MSVC).

This expands to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">__attribute__((name))</code> on a GCC compiler,

and expands to nothing on compilers that don't support GCC attributes.

</dd></dl>

<h4>Numeric utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#numeric-utilities" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h4>

Py_ABS(x)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ABS" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Return the absolute value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code>.

The argument may be evaluated more than once.

Consequently, do not pass an expression with side-effects directly

to this macro.

If the result cannot be represented (for example, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code> has

<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">INT_MIN</code> value for int type), the behavior is

undefined.

Corresponds roughly to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">((x) < 0 ? -(x) : (x))</code>

Added in version 3.3.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_MAX(x, y)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_MAX" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

Py_MIN(x, y)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_MIN" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Return the larger or smaller of the arguments, respectively.

Any arguments may be evaluated more than once.

Consequently, do not pass an expression with side-effects directly

to this macro.

<code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">Py_MAX</code> corresponds roughly to

<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">(((x) > (y)) ? (x) : (y))</code>.

Added in version 3.3.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_ARITHMETIC_RIGHT_SHIFT(type, integer, positions)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ARITHMETIC_RIGHT_SHIFT" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Similar to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">integer >> positions</code>, but forces sign extension,

as the C standard does not define whether a right-shift of a signed

integer will perform sign extension or a zero-fill.

integer should be any signed integer type.

positions is the number of positions to shift to the right.

Both integer and positions can be evaluated more than once;

consequently, avoid directly passing a function call or some other

operation with side-effects to this macro. Instead, store the result as a

variable and then pass it.

type is unused and only kept for backwards compatibility. Historically,

type was used to cast integer.

تغییر داده شده در نسخه 3.1: This macro is now valid for all signed integer types, not just those for

which <code class="docutils literal notranslate">unsigned type</code> is legal. As a result, type is no longer

used.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_CHARMASK(c)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_CHARMASK" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127] or [0,

255]. This macro returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">c</code> cast to an <code class="docutils literal notranslate">unsigned char</code>.

</dd></dl>

</section>

<h4>Assertion utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#assertion-utilities" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h4>

Py_UNREACHABLE()<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_UNREACHABLE" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Use this when you have a code path that cannot be reached by design.

For example, in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">default:</code> clause in a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">switch</code> statement for which

all possible values are covered in <code class="docutils literal notranslate">case</code> statements. Use this in places

where you might be tempted to put an <code class="docutils literal notranslate">assert(0)</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">abort()</code> call.

In release mode, the macro helps the compiler to optimize the code, and

avoids a warning about unreachable code. For example, the macro is

implemented with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__builtin_unreachable()</code> on GCC in release mode.

In debug mode, and on unsupported compilers, the macro expands to a call to

<a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_FatalError" title="Py_FatalError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_FatalError()</code></a>.

A use for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Py_UNREACHABLE()</code> is following a call to a function that

never returns but that is not declared <code class="docutils literal notranslate">_Noreturn</code>.

If a code path is very unlikely code but can be reached under exceptional

case, this macro must not be used. For example, under low memory condition

or if a system call returns a value out of the expected range. In this

case, it's better to report the error to the caller. If the error cannot

be reported to caller, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#c.Py_FatalError" title="Py_FatalError"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_FatalError()</code></a> can be used.

Added in version 3.7.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST(value, larger, smaller)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Cast value to type smaller from type larger, validating that no

information was lost.

On release builds of Python, this is roughly equivalent to

<code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">((smaller) value)</code>

(in C++, <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">static_cast<smaller>(value)</code> will be used instead).

On debug builds (implying that <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DEBUG" title="Py_DEBUG"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">Py_DEBUG</code></a> is defined), this asserts

that no information was lost with the cast from larger to smaller.

value, larger, and smaller may all be evaluated more than once in the

expression; consequently, do not pass an expression with side-effects

directly to this macro.

</dd></dl>

Py_BUILD_ASSERT(cond)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_BUILD_ASSERT" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Asserts a compile-time condition cond, as a statement.

The build will fail if the condition is false or cannot be evaluated at compile time.

Corresponds roughly to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">static_assert(cond)</code> on C23 and above.

For example:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>Py_BUILD_ASSERT(sizeof(PyTime_t) == sizeof(int64_t));

</pre></div>

</div>

Added in version 3.3.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR(cond)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Asserts a compile-time condition cond, as an expression that evaluates to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>.

The build will fail if the condition is false or cannot be evaluated at compile time.

For example:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>#define foo_to_char(foo) \

((char *)(foo) + Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR(offsetof(struct foo, string) == 0))

</pre></div>

</div>

Added in version 3.3.

</div>

</dd></dl>

</section>

<h4>Type size utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#type-size-utilities" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h4>

Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(array)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ARRAY_LENGTH" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Compute the length of a statically allocated C array at compile time.

The array argument must be a C array with a size known at compile time.

Passing an array with an unknown size, such as a heap-allocated array,

will result in a compilation error on some compilers, or otherwise produce

incorrect results.

This is roughly equivalent to:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>sizeof(array) / sizeof((array)[0])

</pre></div>

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_MEMBER_SIZE(type, member)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_MEMBER_SIZE" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Return the size of a structure (type) member in bytes.

Corresponds roughly to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">sizeof(((type *)NULL)->member)</code>.

Added in version 3.6.

</div>

</dd></dl>

</section>

<h4>Macro definition utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#macro-definition-utilities" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h4>

Py_FORCE_EXPANSION(X)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_FORCE_EXPANSION" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>This is equivalent to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">X</code>, which is useful for token-pasting in

macros, as macro expansions in X are forcefully evaluated by the

preprocessor.

</dd></dl>

Py_STRINGIFY(x)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_STRINGIFY" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Convert <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code> to a C string. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Py_STRINGIFY(123)</code> returns

<code class="docutils literal notranslate">"123"</code>.

Added in version 3.4.

</div>

</dd></dl>

</section>

<h3>Declaration utilities<a class="headerlink" href="#declaration-utilities" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>

The following macros can be used in declarations.

They are most useful for defining the C API itself, and have limited use

for extension authors.

Most of them expand to compiler-specific spellings of common extensions

to the C language.

Py_ALWAYS_INLINE<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ALWAYS_INLINE" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function. The compiler can

ignore it and decide to not inline the function.

Corresponds to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">always_inline</code> attribute in GCC and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__forceinline</code>

in MSVC.

It can be used to inline performance critical static inline functions when

building Python in debug mode with function inlining disabled. For example,

MSC disables function inlining when building in debug mode.

Marking blindly a static inline function with Py_ALWAYS_INLINE can result in

worse performances (due to increased code size for example). The compiler is

usually smarter than the developer for the cost/benefit analysis.

If Python is <a class="reference internal" href="../using/configure.html#debug-build">built in debug mode</a> (if the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_DEBUG" title="Py_DEBUG"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">Py_DEBUG</code></a>

macro is defined), the <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_ALWAYS_INLINE" title="Py_ALWAYS_INLINE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">Py_ALWAYS_INLINE</code></a> macro does nothing.

It must be specified before the function return type. Usage:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; }

</pre></div>

</div>

Added in version 3.11.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_NO_INLINE<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_NO_INLINE" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Disable inlining on a function. For example, it reduces the C stack

consumption: useful on LTO+PGO builds which heavily inline code (see

<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720">bpo-33720</a>).

Corresponds to the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">noinline</code> attribute/specification on GCC and MSVC.

Usage:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; }

</pre></div>

</div>

Added in version 3.11.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_DEPRECATED(version)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_DEPRECATED" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Use this to declare APIs that were deprecated in a specific CPython version.

The macro must be placed before the symbol name.

Example:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

</pre></div>

</div>

تغییر داده شده در نسخه 3.8: MSVC support was added.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_LOCAL(type)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_LOCAL" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Declare a function returning the specified type using a fast-calling

qualifier for functions that are local to the current file.

Semantically, this is equivalent to <code class="samp docutils literal notranslate">static type</code>.

</dd></dl>

Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_LOCAL_INLINE" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Equivalent to <a class="reference internal" href="#c.Py_LOCAL" title="Py_LOCAL"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate">Py_LOCAL</code></a> but additionally requests the function

be inlined.

</dd></dl>

Py_LOCAL_SYMBOL<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_LOCAL_SYMBOL" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Macro used to declare a symbol as local to the shared library (hidden).

On supported platforms, it ensures the symbol is not exported.

On compatible versions of GCC/Clang, it

expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__attribute__((visibility("hidden")))</code>.

</dd></dl>

Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Macro used to declare a symbol (function or data) as exported.

On Windows, this expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__declspec(dllexport)</code>.

On compatible versions of GCC/Clang, it

expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__attribute__((visibility("default")))</code>.

This macro is for defining the C API itself; extension modules should not use it.

</dd></dl>

Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Macro used to declare a symbol as imported.

On Windows, this expands to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">__declspec(dllimport)</code>.

This macro is for defining the C API itself; extension modules should not use it.

</dd></dl>

PyAPI_FUNC(type)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAPI_FUNC" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Macro used by CPython to declare a function as part of the C API.

Its expansion depends on the platform and build configuration.

This macro is intended for defining CPython's C API itself;

extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.

</dd></dl>

PyAPI_DATA(type)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.PyAPI_DATA" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Macro used by CPython to declare a public global variable as part of the C API.

Its expansion depends on the platform and build configuration.

This macro is intended for defining CPython's C API itself;

extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.

</dd></dl>

</section>

<h3>Outdated macros<a class="headerlink" href="#outdated-macros" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>

The following macros have been used to features that have been standardized

in C11.

Py_ALIGNED(num)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ALIGNED" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Specify alignment to num bytes on compilers that support it.

Consider using the C11 standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate">_Alignas</code> specifier over this macro.

</dd></dl>

Py_LL(number)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_LL" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

Py_ULL(number)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_ULL" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>Use number as a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">long long</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">unsigned long long</code> integer literal,

respectively.

Expands to number followed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LL</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LLU</code>, respectively, but will

expand to some compiler-specific suffixes on some older compilers.

Consider using the C99 standard suffixes <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LL</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">LLU</code> directly.

</dd></dl>

Py_MEMCPY(dest, src, n)<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_MEMCPY" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>This is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-soft-deprecated">soft deprecated</a> alias to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">memcpy()</code>.

Use <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">memcpy()</code> directly instead.

منسوخ شده از نسخه 3.14: The macro is <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-soft-deprecated">soft deprecated</a>.

</div>

</dd></dl>

Py_VA_COPY<a class="headerlink" href="#c.Py_VA_COPY" title="Link to this definition">¶</a> </dt>

<dd>This is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-soft-deprecated">soft deprecated</a> alias to the C99-standard <code class="docutils literal notranslate">va_copy</code>

function.

Historically, this would use a compiler-specific method to copy a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">va_list</code>.

تغییر داده شده در نسخه 3.6: This is now an alias to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">va_copy</code>.

</div>

</dd></dl>

</section>

<h2>Objects, Types and Reference Counts<a class="headerlink" href="#objects-types-and-reference-counts" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>

Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a return value

of type <a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject">PyObject</a>*. This type is a pointer to an opaque data type

representing an arbitrary Python object. Since all Python object types are

treated the same way by the Python language in most situations (e.g.,

assignments, scope rules, and argument passing), it is only fitting that they

should be represented by a single C type. Almost all Python objects live on the

heap: you never declare an automatic or static variable of type

<a class="reference internal" href="structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate">PyObject</code></a>, only pointer variables of type PyObject* can be

declared. The sole exception are the type objects; since these must never be

deallocated, they are typically static <a class="reference internal" href="type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate">PyTypeObject</code></a> objects.

All Python objects (even Python integers) have a type and a

reference count. An object's type determines what kind of object it is

(e.g., an integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as

explained in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types">The standard type hierarchy</a>). For each of the well-known types there is a macro

to check whether an object is of that type; for instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">PyList_Check(a)</code> is

true if (and only if) the object pointed to by a is a Python list.

<h3>Reference Counts<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-counts" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>

The reference count is important because today's computers have a finite

(and often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many different

places there are that have a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-strong-reference">strong reference</a> to an object.

Such a place could be another object, or a global (or static) C variable,

or a local variable in some C function.

When the last strong reference to an object is released

(i.e. its reference count becomes zero), the object is deallocated.

If it contains references to other objects, those references are released.

Those other objects may be deallocated in turn, if there are no more

references to them, and so on. (There's an obvious problem with

objects that reference each other here; for now, the solution

is "don't do that.")

Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly. The normal way is

to use the macro <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_INCREF()</code></a> to take a new reference to an

object (i.e. increment its reference count by one),

and <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_DECREF()</code></a> to release that reference (i.e. decrement the

reference count by one). The <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_DECREF()</code> macro

is considerably more complex than the incref one, since it must check whether

the reference count becomes zero and then cause the object's deallocator to be

called. The deallocator is a function pointer contained in the object's type

structure. The type-specific deallocator takes care of releasing references

for other objects contained in the object if this is a compound

object type, such as a list, as well as performing any additional finalization

that's needed. There's no chance that the reference count can overflow; at

least as many bits are used to hold the reference count as there are distinct

memory locations in virtual memory (assuming <code class="docutils literal notranslate">sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)</code>).

Thus, the reference count increment is a simple operation.

It is not necessary to hold a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-strong-reference">strong reference</a> (i.e. increment

the reference count) for every local variable that contains a pointer

to an object. In theory, the object's

reference count goes up by one when the variable is made to point to it and it

goes down by one when the variable goes out of scope. However, these two

cancel each other out, so at the end the reference count hasn't changed. The

only real reason to use the reference count is to prevent the object from being

deallocated as long as our variable is pointing to it. If we know that there

is at least one other reference to the object that lives at least as long as

our variable, there is no need to take a new strong reference

(i.e. increment the reference count) temporarily.

An important situation where this arises is in objects that are passed as

arguments to C functions in an extension module that are called from Python;

the call mechanism guarantees to hold a reference to every argument for the

duration of the call.

However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold on to it

for a while without taking a new reference. Some other operation might

conceivably remove the object from the list, releasing that reference,

and possibly deallocating it. The real danger is that innocent-looking

operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could do this; there is a code

path which allows control to flow back to the user from a <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_DECREF()</code></a>, so

almost any operation is potentially dangerous.

A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions whose name

begins with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">PyObject_</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">PyNumber_</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">PySequence_</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">PyMapping_</code>).

These operations always create a new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-strong-reference">strong reference</a>

(i.e. increment the reference count) of the object they return.

This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_DECREF()</code></a> when

they are done with the result; this soon becomes second nature.

<h4>Reference Count Details<a class="headerlink" href="#reference-count-details" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h4>

The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best explained

in terms of ownership of references. Ownership pertains to references, never

to objects (objects are not owned: they are always shared). "Owning a

reference" means being responsible for calling Py_DECREF on it when the

reference is no longer needed. Ownership can also be transferred, meaning that

the code that receives ownership of the reference then becomes responsible for

eventually releasing it by calling <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_DECREF()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_XDECREF()</code></a>

when it's no longer needed---or passing on this responsibility (usually to its

caller). When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its caller, the

caller is said to receive a new reference. When no ownership is transferred,

the caller is said to borrow the reference. Nothing needs to be done for a

<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-borrowed-reference">borrowed reference</a>.

Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an object, there

are two possibilities: the function steals a reference to the object, or it

does not. Stealing a reference means that when you pass a reference to a

function, that function assumes that it now owns that reference, and you are not

responsible for it any longer.

Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are

<a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyList_SetItem()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyTuple_SetItem()</code></a>, which steal a reference

to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item is put!). These

functions were designed to steal a reference because of a common idiom for

populating a tuple or list with newly created objects; for example, the code to

create the tuple <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(1, 2, "three")</code> could look like this (forgetting about

error handling for the moment; a better way to code this is shown below):

t = PyTuple_New(3);

PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));

PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));

PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));

</pre></div>

</div>

Here, <a class="reference internal" href="long.html#c.PyLong_FromLong" title="PyLong_FromLong"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyLong_FromLong()</code></a> returns a new reference which is immediately

stolen by <a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyTuple_SetItem()</code></a>. When you want to keep using an object

although the reference to it will be stolen, use <a class="reference internal" href="refcounting.html#c.Py_INCREF" title="Py_INCREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_INCREF()</code></a> to grab

another reference before calling the reference-stealing function.

Incidentally, <a class="reference internal" href="tuple.html#c.PyTuple_SetItem" title="PyTuple_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyTuple_SetItem()</code></a> is the only way to set tuple items;

<a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_SetItem" title="PySequence_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PySequence_SetItem()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyObject_SetItem()</code></a> refuse to do this

since tuples are an immutable data type. You should only use

<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyTuple_SetItem()</code> for tuples that you are creating yourself.

Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_New" title="PyList_New"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyList_New()</code></a>

and <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_SetItem" title="PyList_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyList_SetItem()</code></a>.

However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and populating

a tuple or list. There's a generic function, <a class="reference internal" href="arg.html#c.Py_BuildValue" title="Py_BuildValue"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">Py_BuildValue()</code></a>, that can

create most common objects from C values, directed by a format string.

For example, the above two blocks of code could be replaced by the following

(which also takes care of the error checking):

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>PyObject *tuple, *list;

tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");

list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");

</pre></div>

</div>

It is much more common to use <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_SetItem" title="PyObject_SetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyObject_SetItem()</code></a> and friends with items

whose references you are only borrowing, like arguments that were passed in to

the function you are writing. In that case, their behaviour regarding references

is much saner, since you don't have to take a new reference just so you

can give that reference away ("have it be stolen"). For example, this function

sets all items of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item:

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>int

set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)

{

Py_ssize_t i, n;

n = PyObject_Length(target);

if (n < 0)

return -1;

for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {

PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);

if (!index)

return -1;

if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {

Py_DECREF(index);

return -1;

}

Py_DECREF(index);

}

return 0;

}

</pre></div>

</div>

The situation is slightly different for function return values. While passing

a reference to most functions does not change your ownership responsibilities

for that reference, many functions that return a reference to an object give

you ownership of the reference. The reason is simple: in many cases, the

returned object is created on the fly, and the reference you get is the only

reference to the object. Therefore, the generic functions that return object

references, like <a class="reference internal" href="object.html#c.PyObject_GetItem" title="PyObject_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyObject_GetItem()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PySequence_GetItem()</code></a>,

always return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference).

It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned by a

function depends on which function you call only --- the plumage (the type of

the object passed as an argument to the function) doesn't enter into it!

Thus, if you extract an item from a list using <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_GetItem" title="PyList_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyList_GetItem()</code></a>, you

don't own the reference --- but if you obtain the same item from the same list

using <a class="reference internal" href="sequence.html#c.PySequence_GetItem" title="PySequence_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PySequence_GetItem()</code></a> (which happens to take exactly the same

arguments), you do own a reference to the returned object.

Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the sum of

the items in a list of integers; once using <a class="reference internal" href="list.html#c.PyList_GetItem" title="PyList_GetItem"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">PyList_GetItem()</code></a>, and once

<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>long

sum_list(PyObject *list)

{

long total = 0, value;

PyObject *item;

n = PyList_Size(list);

return -1; /* Not a list */

item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */

if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */

value = PyLong_AsLong(item);

if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())

/* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */

return -1;

total += value;

}

return total;

}

</pre></div>

</div>

<div class="highlight-c notranslate" id="index-7"><div class="highlight"><pre>long

sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)

{

PyObject *item;

n = PySequence_Length(sequence);

return -1; /* Has no length */

item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);

if (item == NULL)

return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */

if (PyLong_Check(item)) {

Py_DECREF(item);

/* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */

return -1;

total += value;

}

else {

Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */

}

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