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<div class="section" id="more-on-functions">
<span id="id1"></span><h1>More on Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#more-on-functions" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h1>
<p>From the materials you have covered up to this point you should have mastered the basics of writing functions.</p>
<p>In particular, you know that functions can contain a chunk of code that can be written once, and used multiple times from other parts of the code.</p>
<p>You know that you can pass values into the function, and that it can return values to the “calling” code.</p>
<p>Now we will dig a bit deeper down into the specifics of functions in Python:</p>
<div class="section" id="variable-scope">
<h2>Variable scope<a class="headerlink" href="#variable-scope" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Defining a function:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">y</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">z</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> are <em>local</em> names.</p>
<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> because they are function <em>parameters</em></p>
<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> because it was “bound” inside the function.</p>
<div class="section" id="local-vs-global">
<h3>Local vs. Global<a class="headerlink" href="#local-vs-global" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>Names bound in Python have a <em>scope</em></p>
<p>That <em>scope</em> determines where a name is visible, and what value it has in a
given block.</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [14]: </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">32</span>
<span class="gp">In [15]: </span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">33</span>
<span class="gp">In [16]: </span><span class="n">z</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">34</span>
<span class="gp">In [17]: </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="gp"> ....: </span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp"> ....:</span>
<span class="gp">In [18]: </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="go">32 3 4</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> is global, while <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> are local to the function.</p>
<p>But, did the value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">y</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">z</span></code> change in the <em>global</em> scope?</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [19]: </span><span class="n">y</span>
<span class="gh">Out[19]: </span><span class="go">33</span>
<span class="gp">In [20]: </span><span class="n">z</span>
<span class="gh">Out[20]: </span><span class="go">34</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>No – they did not. The “y” and “z” names <em>inside</em> the function are completely separate from the “y” and “z” outside the function.</p>
<p>The ones outside the function are “global” names.</p>
<p>When you use a name in Python, it first checks if it’s a local name. Then, if that name is not in the local scope, it will look in the global scope for it.</p>
<p><strong>NOTE:</strong> “global” in Python means global to the module (generally a single file), not global to an entire program. Which is really good, as you have little way of knowing what names are being used in packages you are using, but are not writing yourself!</p>
<p>In general, you should use global names mostly for constants.</p>
<p>The Python convention is to designate global constants by typing the
names we bind to them in ALL_CAPS:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">INSTALLED_APPS</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'foo'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'bar'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'baz'</span><span class="p">]</span>
<span class="n">CONFIGURATION_KEY</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'some secret value'</span>
<span class="o">...</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This is just a convention, but it’s a good one to follow.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="global-gotcha">
<h3>Global Gotcha<a class="headerlink" href="#global-gotcha" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>Take a look at this function definition:</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [21]: </span><span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span>
<span class="gp">In [22]: </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
<span class="gp"> ....: </span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
<span class="gp"> ....: </span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
<span class="gp"> ....: </span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp"> ....: </span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp"> ....:</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>What is going to happen when we call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">f</span></code>?</p>
<p>Try it and see:</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [34]: </span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
<span class="gt">---------------------------------------------------------------------------</span>
<span class="ne">UnboundLocalError</span><span class="g g-Whitespace"> </span>Traceback (most recent call last)
<span class="nn"><ipython-input-34-0ec059b9bfe1></span> in <span class="ni"><module></span><span class="nt">()</span>
<span class="ne">----> </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
<span class="nn"><ipython-input-33-4363b2b69f73></span> in <span class="ni">f</span><span class="nt">()</span>
<span class="g g-Whitespace"> </span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
<span class="ne">----> </span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
<span class="g g-Whitespace"> </span><span class="mi">3</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span>
<span class="g g-Whitespace"> </span><span class="mi">4</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="g g-Whitespace"> </span><span class="mi">5</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="ne">UnboundLocalError</span>: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Because you are binding the symbol <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span></code> locally, it becomes a local and masks
the global value already bound. So in the line that caused the error:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">y</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Python knows that x is a local name, as it is assigned on the next line. But on this line, x has not yet been given a value – hence the error.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="globals-are-read-only">
<h3>Globals are “read only”<a class="headerlink" href="#globals-are-read-only" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>While you have access to the global names in side a function, you can’t change what those names are bound to. Take a look at the previous examples – when we set a new value to a name (using the equal sign), that makes the name local – so it will not change what the global name refers to.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="parameters">
<h2>Parameters<a class="headerlink" href="#parameters" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>So far we’ve seen simple parameter lists:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>These types of parameters are called <em>positional</em></p>
<p>When you call a function, you <strong>must</strong> provide arguments for all <em>positional</em>
parameters <em>in the order they are listed</em>.</p>
<div class="section" id="defaults-for-parameters">
<h3>Defaults for parameters:<a class="headerlink" href="#defaults-for-parameters" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h3>
<p>You can provide <em>default values</em> for parameters in a function definition:</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [24]: </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="gp"> ....: </span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp"> ....:</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>When parameters are given with default values, they become <em>optional</em>.</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [25]: </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">()</span>
<span class="go">1 2 3</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>You can provide arguments to a function call for <em>optional</em> parameters
positionally:</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [26]: </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="go">6 2 3</span>
<span class="gp">In [27]: </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="go">6 7 3</span>
<span class="gp">In [28]: </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="go">6 7 8</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Or, you can use the parameter name as a <em>keyword</em> to indicate which you mean:</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [29]: </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="go">1 4 3</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This allows you to specify only those optional parameters that you need to, and keep using the defaults for the rest.
This is a very powerful feature of Python – you’ll find it’s common to have a pretty long optional parameter list to functions.
It allows a lot of flexibility (the hard stuff is possible), while in common use, it’s easy to use (the easy stuff is easy).</p>
<p>Once you’ve provided a <em>keyword</em> argument in this way, you can no longer
provide any <em>positional</em> arguments:</p>
<div class="highlight-ipython notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">In [30]: </span><span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gt"> File</span><span class="nn"> "<ipython-input-30-4529e5befb95>"</span><span class="gt">, line </span><span class="mi">1</span>
<span class="n">fun</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="ne">SyntaxError</span>: non-keyword arg after keyword arg
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="recursion">
<h2>Recursion<a class="headerlink" href="#recursion" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>You’ve seen functions that call other functions.</p>
<p>If a function calls <em>itself</em>, we call that <strong>recursion</strong>.</p>
<p>Like with other functions, a call within a call establishes a <em>call stack</em>.</p>
<p>With recursion, if you are not careful, this stack can get <em>very</em> deep.</p>
<p>Python has a maximum limit to how much it can recurse. This is intended to
save your machine from running out of RAM.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="recursion-can-be-useful">
<h2>Recursion can be Useful<a class="headerlink" href="#recursion-can-be-useful" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Recursion is especially useful for a particular set of problems.</p>
<p>For example, take the case of the <em>factorial</em> function.</p>
<p>In mathematics, the <em>factorial</em> of an integer is the result of multiplying that integer by every integer smaller than itself down to 1.</p>
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>5! == 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>We can use a recursive function nicely to model this mathematical function:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fact</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="sd">"""compute the factorial of the input value, n"""</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
<span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">fact</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This is a typical structure for a recursive function:</p>
<ol class="upperalpha simple">
<li><p>It starts with a check to see if the recursive process is “done” – can it simply return a simple value.</p></li>
<li><p>If not, then it does a computation using the same function with another value.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>It is critical that the first check is there, or the function will never terminate.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="further-reading">
<h2>Further Reading<a class="headerlink" href="#further-reading" title="Permalink to this headline"></a></h2>
<p>Here’s a nice blog post about writting better functions:</p>
<p><a class="reference external" href="https://jeffknupp.com/blog/2018/10/11/write-better-python-functions/">https://jeffknupp.com/blog/2018/10/11/write-better-python-functions/</a></p>
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